Mohamed Ali Pasha — Part I: Rise to Power and the Making of Modern Egypt

This chapter explores the dramatic rise of Mohamed Ali Pasha, his struggle against the Mamluks and the Ottomans, and the early foundations of the state project that would later reshape Egypt’s modern identity.

Regarded today as one of the most influential political figures of 19th-century Egypt, Mohamed Ali’s journey from an obscure Albanian officer to the ruler of Egypt—and founder of a hereditary dynasty—remains one of the most remarkable political transformations in Middle Eastern history.

Although he is widely labeled “the founder of modern Egypt”, historical records reveal that this title was first promoted by Mohamed Ali himself, and later adopted by political and cultural institutions during and after his rule.

Rise to Power

Mohamed Ali Pasha, born to Ibrahim Agha in 1769 in Kavala, Macedonia, rose to power at a turbulent moment when Egypt was torn between the Mamluks, the British, and the Ottomans. Amid this chaos, he presented himself as the only man capable of restoring justice and stability—an image that earned him strong support from the Egyptian people and scholars, particularly the influential leader Omar Makram.

In 1805, the notables of Egypt formally chose Mohamed Ali as the new wali (governor), breaking the long-standing Ottoman practice of rotating governors every two years. His rule would last more than three decades and become deeply embedded in Egypt’s national character.

Wars of Consolidation

From the earliest years of his rule, Mohamed Ali understood that authority could only be secured through the elimination of rival military powers.

He waged campaigns against:

• The Mamluks, defeating them in Cairo and driving them into Upper Egypt

• The British, resisting their attempts to impose influence

• Rebellions across the region, fighting on behalf of the Ottoman Empire in Arabia and Greece

Later, his ambitions led him to expand into Sudan, and eventually to confront the Ottoman state itself in Syria and Anatolia.

His armies grew powerful enough to alarm Europe, prompting Britain, France, Austria, and Russia to intervene and force him to limit his rule to Egypt and Sudan.

A State-Building Vision

During his rule, Mohamed Ali launched one of the most ambitious state-building projects in Egyptian history:

• He created a modern, conscripted army

• Established European-style schools and academies

• Sent scientific missions to France and Italy

• Developed agriculture, industry, and trade

• Reorganized the state into a centralized bureaucracy

Although his successors failed to preserve the full momentum of his reforms, his foundations shaped much of the Egypt that would emerge in the decades that followed.

Early Life — The Making of a Future Ruler

Mohamed Ali was born into modest circumstances, orphaned early, and raised by relatives and Ottoman administrators. His courage and intelligence earned him a place in the military, and his marriage to Amina Hanim, a wealthy noblewoman, elevated his status and opened the door to political advancement.

When the Ottomans mobilized forces to expel the French from Egypt in 1801, Mohamed Ali joined the Albanian contingent.
Unbeknownst to all, this would be the beginning of Egypt’s long journey with him.

Chaos After the French Withdrawal — The Stage Opens

The struggle for Egypt intensified after the departure of the French:

• Ottomans sought to restore full control

• Mamluks tried to regain their lost authority

• The British pursued strategic influence

Assassinations, betrayals, and shifting alliances turned Egypt into a battleground. The people suffered under instability and violence.

In this volatile landscape, Mohamed Ali played with exceptional political finesse—balancing between factions, gaining the trust of scholars, and presenting himself as a protector of the people.

The People's Revolution — The Decisive Moment

The turning point came with the oppressive rule of Ahmed Khurshid Pasha, whose inability to control the violent Dalati troops triggered a popular uprising.

Led by Omar Makram, the people demanded his removal and chose Mohamed Ali in his place.

On 17 May 1805, the Egyptian notables pledged their allegiance to Mohamed Ali.
Shortly after, Sultan Selim III legitimized the choice with an imperial decree.

This was the true birth of the Alawi State.

The Mamluk Conflict — A Battle for Egypt’s Future

Mohamed Ali’s most dangerous rivals were the Mamluks.
Although they attempted to retake Cairo, he defeated them and forced them into Upper Egypt.

The year 1806 brought major reversals—early defeats followed by decisive victories.
But the sudden deaths of the Mamluk chiefs, Osman al-Bardisi and Mohamed Bey al-Alfi, tipped the balance in Mohamed Ali’s favor.

His forces regained Upper Egypt and began forming the military foundation upon which his state would stand.

📌 End of Part I — Continue to Part II

Mohamed Ali Pasha — Part II: The Fall of the Mamluks, State-Building, and the Final Years
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